The most important achievements of ancient Greece and ancient Rome. (antiquity era)

The culture of ancient Greece existed from the XXVIII century. BC. and until the middle of the II century. BC. It is also called antique - to distinguish from other ancient cultures, and the Ancient Greece itself - Ellasta, because the Greeks themselves called their country. The highest rise and heyday ancient Greek culture reached in the V-IV centuries. BC, becoming exceptional, unique and in many respects not a surpassed phenomenon in the history of world culture.

The flowering of the culture of ancient Eldla is so amazing that it still causes deep admiration and gives reason to talk about the real riddle of the Greek Miracle. The essence of this miracle It is primarily in that only the Greek people almost simultaneously and in almost all areas of culture managed to achieve unprecedented heights. No other people - neither before, nor after - could not do anything like that.

Giving such a high assessment of the achievements of Ellinov, it should be clarified that much they borrowed from Egyptians and Babylonians, which contributing to the Greek cities of Malaya Asia - Millet, Ephesus, Galicarnas, who served as peculiar windows opened to the East. However, all borrowed they used as the source material, bringing it to classic forms and genuine perfection.

And if the Greeks were not the first, they were the best, and to such an extent that in many respects and today remain those. The second clarification concerns that in the field of economy and material production, the success of Ellinians may not be so impressive. However, here they not only did not inferior to some of their contemporaries, but also exceeded them, as evidence in the Persian wars, where they acted not as much as the skill as the skill and mind. True, in a militarily, Athena - the cradle of democracy - was inferior to Sparta, where the whole way of life was a military. As for other areas of social life and especially spiritual culture, in all this, the Greeks did not know equal.

Ellade has become Motherland of all modern forms of the state and government, and above all - the republic and democracy, the highest flourishing of which came on the reign of pericles (443-429 BC). In Greece for the first time Two types of labor were distinguished clearly - Physical and mental, the first of which was considered a unworthy man and was a diet of a subanel slave, while the second was the only worthy of his free person.

Although cities-states existed in other ancient civilizations, it is the Greek that such a type of organization of the Company, who adopted Form Polis, With the greatest force showed all its advantages. The Greeks successfully combined the state and private ownership, collective and individual interest. Similarly, they joined the aristocracy with the republic, distributing the value of aristocratic ethics - Principle of adversarityThe desire to be the first and best, achieving this in an open and honest struggle - on all citizens of the policy.

The competition was the basis of the entire lifestyle of Ellini, she permeated all its spheres, whether Olympic Games, Dispute, battlefield or theatrical scene, when several authors who endowed the audience on the court of the audience, from which the best was then chosen.

Polis Democracy, excluding despotic power, allowed the Greeks to fully enjoy the spirit freedomwhich was the highest value for them. For her, they were ready for death. They looked at slavery with deep contempt. This is evidenced by the well-known myth of Promethea, who did not want to be on the position of the slave even at Zeus himself, the main divine of Ellinov, and for his freedom he paid a martyr's death.

The lifestyle of the ancient Greeks It is impossible to imagine without an understanding of the place that occupied by them the game. They loved the game. Therefore, they are called real children. However, the game for them was not a simple fun or way to kill time. She penetrated all kinds of activities, including the most serious. The playing start helped the Greeks from the prose of life and rude pragmatism. The game led to the fact that they received pleasure and pleasure from every case.

The lifestyle of Hellenes was also determined by such values \u200b\u200bas Truth, beauty and welcomewho were in close unity. The Greeks had a special concept of "calocation", which meant "Beautiful-kind". "Truth" in their understanding approaching what means russian word "True-justice", i.e. She went beyond the borders of the truth-truth, faithful knowledge, and acquired a moral value measurement.

No less important was for the Greeks measure, which was inextricably contacted with proportionality, moderation, harmony and order. From Democritus reached us, the famous Maxim: "The perfect measure in everything is beautiful." The inscription above the entrance to the Apollo temple in Delphi called: "Nothing too." Therefore, the Greeks, on the one hand, considered own An integral attribute of a person: together with the loss of ownership of Ellin lost all civil and political rights, ceasing to be a free person. At the same time, the desire for wealth was condemned. The noted feature was manifested in architecture The Greeks did not create, like Egyptians, giant structures, their buildings were proportionate to the possibilities of human perception, they did not suppress a person.

The ideal of the Greeks was a harmoniously developed, free man, a wonderful soul and body. The formation of such a person provided the thoughtful Education and education system. I included two directions - "gymnastic" and "Music". The purpose of the first was physical perfection. His peak was to participate in the Olympic Games whose winners were surrounded by glory and honor. At the time of the Olympic Games, all wars stopped. Musical, or humanitarian, the direction assumed to learning all types of arts, the development of scientific disciplines and philosophy, including rhetoric, i.e. The ability to speak beautifully, keep dialogue and dispute. PSE types of education rested on the principle of competition.

All this did Greek polis An exceptional, unique phenomenon in the history of mankind. Hellenes perceived the policy as a higher blessing, not imagining their life outside his framework, were the true patriots.

True, the pride in its policy and patriotism contributed to the formation of Greek cultural ethnocentrism, by virtue of which Ellina called the neighboring people with them "barbarians", looked at them. Nevertheless, it was precisely such a policy of Greeks everything necessary to show unprecedented originality in all areas of culture, to create everything that constitutes a "Greek miracle."

In almost all areas, the Greeks were put forward by the Fathers Fathers, which posted the beginning of their modern forms. First of all it concerns philosophy. The Greeks were the first to create a modern form of philosophy, separating it from religion and mythology, starting to explain the world from himself, without referring to the help of the gods, based on the first elements, water, earth, air, fire performed for them.

Fales became the first Greek philosopher for whom water was the basis of all things. The vertices of the Greek philosophy were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. The transition from a religious and mythological view to the world to the philosophical understanding of his understanding meant the fundamental change in the development of the human mind. The philosophy at the same time became modern both by the method - scientific and rational and according to the method of thinking, based on the logic and proof. The Greek word "philosophy" entered almost all languages.

The same can be said about other sciences and first of all about mathematics. Pythagoras, Euclidean and Archimedes are the founders of both mathematics and major mathematical disciplines - geometry, mechanics, optics, hydrostatics. IN Astronomy Aristarkh Samossky first expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bheliocentrism, according to which the Earth moves around the stationary sun. Hippocrates became the founder of modern clinical medicine, Herodotus is considered to be the Father stories like science. The "poetics" of Aristotle is the first fundamental work that no modern art theorist can bypass.

Approximately the same situation is observed in the field of art. Almost all types and genres of contemporary art were born in ancient Ellad, and many of them reached the classic forms and the highest level. The latter primarily refers to sculpture Where Greeks rightly gives the palm of championship. It is a whole pleiad of great masters led by FIDIA.

It applies equally to literature And her genres - epos, poetry. Of particular allocation deserves the Greek tragedy, reaching the highest level. Many Greek tragedies and today go on stage. In Greece was born Architecture, Which also reached a high level of development. It should be emphasized that art had a tremendous importance in the life of the Greeks. They wanted not only to create, but also live according to the laws of beauty. The Greeks were the first to feel the need to fill all spheres of human livelihoods with high art. They quite consciously sought to the aesthetization of life, to comprehend the "art of existence", to make the work of art from their life.

The exclusive originality of the ancient Greeks showed in religion. Externally, their religious and mythological representations and cults are not too different from others. Initially growing many Greek gods was rather chaotic and conflict. Then, after a long struggle, the Olympic fans of the third generation are approved, between which a relatively stable hierarchy is established.

The Supreme Divine becomes Zeus - the Lord of the sky, thunder and zipper. The second after him is Apollo - the patron saint of all the arts, the God of healers and a bright, calmly started in nature. The sister of Apollo Artemis was the goddess of hunting and the patroness of young people. No less important place was held by Dionysis (Vakch) - God producing, the rustling forces of nature, viticulture and winemaking. Many rituals and fun festivities - Dionysiiia and Vakhanlia were associated with his cult. The God of the Sun was gels OS (helium).

The goddess of the wisdom of Athena, born from Zeus's head, was used by Ellinov's special reverence. Her permanent companion was the goddess of Victory Nick. The symbol of wisdom Athens was owl. No less attention was attracted by the goddess of the love and beauty of Aphrodite, born from sea foam. Demeter was the goddess of agriculture and fertility. The competence of Hermes included, apparently, the greatest number of responsibilities: he was the Bulletin of the Olympic gods, the God of trade, profits and material wealth, the patron saint of deceivers and thieves, shepherds and trains, speakers and athletes. He also kept the souls of the dead in the underworld. In the possession of God Aida (Gades, Pluto).

In addition to those named, the Greeks had many other gods. They liked to invent all new gods, and they did it with hobby. In Athens, they even put an altar with a dedication: "Unknown God." However, in the humilion of the Gods of Ellina was not too original. This was also observed from other peoples. The real originality was how they belonged to their gods.

At the heart of religious representations of the Greeks There was no idea about the omnipotence of gods. They believed that the world was not as many divine will, how many natural laws. At the same time over the world, with all the gods and people Increased rock, the prerequisites of which cannot even change the gods. Rock fate beyond anyone, so the Greek gods are rather closer to people than to supernatural forces.

Unlike the gods of other nations, they are tropomorphs, although in the distant past and the Greeks had zoomorphic deities. Some Greek philosophers stated that people themselves wondered their gods in their likelihood that if the beasts would decide to do the same thing, their gods would be similar to them.

The smooth and most significant difference between the gods from people consisted in the fact that they were immortal. The second difference was that they were also beautiful, although not all: Hephaesta, for example, was chrome. However, their divine beauty was considered quite achievable and for humans. In all the rest of the world of the gods was similar to the world of people. The gods suffered and rejoiced, loved and jealous, quarreled by themselves, harmed and twisted each other, etc. The Greeks were not identified, but did not conduct an insurmountable line between people and gods. Intermediaries between them performed Heroes,who were born from the marriage of God with the earthly woman and who for their feats could be attached to the world of the gods.

The proximity between the person and God provided a significant impact on the religious consciousness and practice of Ellin. They believed their gods, worshiped them, built them temples and brought victims. But they did not have a blind worship, trembling and especially fanaticism. It can be said that long before Christianity the Greeks have already adhered to the famous Christian commandment: "Do not coordinate the idol." Greeks could afford a critical statement about the gods. Moreover, they often challenged them. The striking example of this is the same myth of Promethea, which threw the audacious challenge to the gods, kidding them from them and giving it to people.

If other nations deified their kings and rulers, then the Greeks were eliminated. The leader of the Athenian democracy of Performs, in which she reached the highest point, for the belief of his fellow citizens, at the right direction of his point of view did not have any other, except for an outstanding mind, arguments, oratory and eloquence.

Special peculiarity has Greek mythology. Everything that happens in it is the same human, as the gods themselves, about which is described in Greek myths. Along with the gods, a significant place in myths occupy acts and feats of "worst heroes", which are often the main existing lips in the neled events. In Greek mythology there is practically no mysticism, the mysterious, supernatural forces are not very important. The main thing in it is artistic imagery and poetry, playing. Greek mythology is much closer to art than to religion. That is why it amounted to the foundation of the Great Greek art. For the same reason, Hegel called the Greek religion of "religion of beauty".

Greek mythology, like all Greek culture, contributed to the glorification and exaltation not so much gods as far as humans. It is in the face of Ellinov who first begins to conscious of his limitless forces and opportunities. Sophokl notes about this: "There are a lot of forces in the world. But a stronger than a person is not in nature. " The words of Archimedes are more significant sounded more significant: "Give me a plot point - and I will turn the whole world." In all this, the future European converter and the conqueror of nature is already quite visible.

Evolution of ancient Greek culture

Reporting periods

In the evolution of the culture of ancient Greece, usually allocate Five periods:

• Aegean culture (2800-1100 BC).
• Homeric period (XI-IX centuries. BC).
• The period of archaic culture (VIII-VI centuries. BC).
• Classic period (V-IV centuries. BC).
• Ellinism era (323-146 BC).

Aegean culture

Aegean culture Often they call Crito-Mycenae, considering the island of Crete and Mycena, the main centers. It is also called the Minoan culture - by the name of the legendary king of the Misa, in which the island of Crete, which occupied the leading positions in the region, reached its highest power.

At the end of III thousand BC. In the south of the Balkan Peninsula. Peloponnese and the island of Crete there were early-grade societies and the first foci of statehood arose. This process was somewhat faster on the island of Crete, where to the beginning of the II thousand BC. The first four states with centers of Palaces in Knosse, Fest, Malli and Kato-cloth appeared. Considering the special role of palaces, the emerging civilization is sometimes called "Palace".

Economic base Cretan civilization was agriculture, in which bread, grapes and olives were primarily grown. Cattle breeding was also played an important role. High levels reached the crafts, especially the smelting of bronze. Successfully developed ceramic production.

The most famous monument of Cretan culture was the Knos Palace, which became a story under the name "Labyrinth", From which only the first floor has been preserved. The palace was a grandiose multi-storey building, which included 300 premises on a common platform, which occupied more than I ha. It was equipped with an excellent water supply and sewerage system, had terracotta baths. The palace was at the same time a religious, administrative and shopping center, there were craft workshops. The myth about Tesa and Minotaur is connected with it.

High level on Crete reached sculpture Small forms. In the cache of the Knos Palace found the statues of goddesses with snakes in their hands, which are full of graces, grace and femininity. The best achievement of Cretan art is painting, as evidenced by the preserved fragments of the paintings of the Knos and other palaces. As an example, you can point to such bright, colorful and juicy pictures, like the "Color Corporator", "Cat, Launcher Pheasant", "game with a bull".

The highest flourishing of Cretan civilization and culture falls on the XVI-XV centuries. BC, especially at the time of the board of King Mis. However, at the end of the XV century. BC. Flowering civilization and culture dying unexpectedly. The cause of the catastrophe is most likely the eruption of the volcano.

Arising in southern Balkans Part of the Aegean culture and civilization was close to Cretan. She also rested at the centers of the palaces, which were in Mixes, tyaring, Athens, NILLOS, phi.However, these palaces differed noticeably from Cretan: they were powerful citadel-fortresses acquired by high (more than 7 m) and thick (more than 4.5 m) walls. At the same time, this part of the Aegean culture can be considered more Greek, because it is here, to the south of the Balkans, in the III milk. BC. The Greek tribes and Danaires actually came. By virtue of the special role of the Ahaeis, this culture and civilization are often called Ahasey. Each center-joybug was an independent state; Between them there were a variety of relations, including contradictions and conflicts. Sometimes they united into the Union - as it was done for a trip to Troy. Hegemony among them belonged to the cup.

As in Crete, the basis Economy Ahasey civilization was agriculture and cattle breeding. The land owner was the palace, and all the economy had a palace. It included all sorts of workshops in which agricultural products were recycled, metals were flapred, tissue tested and sewed clothes, workers of labor and military equipment were made.

The earliest monuments of the Ahasey culture were cultivated, confidential character. These include primarily the so-called "mines robnitsa mine", walled in the rocks, where many beautiful products made of gold, silver, ivory, as well as a huge amount of weapons. Golden burial masks of the Ahase rulers were also discovered here. Later (XV-XIIJ centuries. BC) Ahaeis build more ambitious clocking facilities - "Dome Tombs", one of which is the "Tomb of Agamemnon" - included several premises.

The magnificent monument is secular architecture There was a Mycena Palace, decorated with columns and frescoes. High level also reached painting, as evidenced by the painting of the preserved walls of the Mycena and other palaces. The most striking examples of paintings include the frescoes "Lady with Necklace", "Fighting boys", as well as images of scenes of hunting and battles, stylized animals - monkeys, antelopes.

Apogee of Culture of Ahasey Greece falls on the XV-HSH centuries. BC, but by the end of the XIII century. BC. She begins to decline, but during the XII century. BC. All palaces are destroyed. The most likely cause of death was the invasion of the northern peoples, among which were the Greeks-Doriians, but the exact causes of the catastrophe are not installed.

Homeric period

The period of XI-IX centuries. BC. In the history of Greece, it is customary called Homerovsky. Since the famous poems serve as the main sources of information about it Oriada"I. "Odyssey". He is also called "Dorian" - with the special role of the Dorian tribes in the conquest of Ahasey Greece.

It should be noted that the information from Homer's poems cannot be considered quite reliable and accurate, because they actually turned out to be mixed narratives about three different epochs: the final stage of the Ahasey era, when a trip was made to Troy (XIII century BC); Dorian period (XI-IX centuries. BC); Early Archaika, when Homer himself lived and worked (VIII century. BC). It is necessary to add artistic fiction characteristic of epic works, hyperbolization and exaggeration, temporary and other mixes, etc.

Nevertheless, relying on the content of Homer's poems and these archaeological excavations, it can be assumed that from the point of view of civilization and material culture, the Dorian period meant a well-known breakdown of continuity between epochs and even rollback back, since some elements of the already achieved level of civilization were lost.

In particular, It was lost Statehood, as well as urban, or palace lifestyle, writing. These elements of Greek civilization were actually born again. At the same time, the emerging and widespread Application of iron contributed to the accelerated development of the civilization principle. The main occupation of Dorians was still agriculture and cattle breeding. Gardening and winemaking successfully developed, and Olives remained the leading culture. Trade retained its place where a large cattle protrude as a "universal equivalent". Although the main form of organization of life was a rural patriarchal community, the future urban policy has already emerged in its depths.

Concerning spiritual culture, This continuity was saved here. This is convincingly spoken by Homer's poems, of which you can see that the mythology of the Ahetseians, which makes up the basis of spiritual life, remained the same. Judging by the poems, there was a further spread of myth as a special form of consciousness and perception of the surrounding world. There was also a streamlining of Greek mythology, which acquired more and more complete, perfect forms.

The period of archaic culture

Archaic period (VIII -VI explosive BC) Before the time of the rapid and intensive development of ancient Greece, during which all the necessary conditions and prerequisites were created for the subsequent amazing takeoff and heyday. In almost all areas of life, deep changes occur. For three centuries, an antique society makes a transition from the village to the city, from the generic and patriarchal relations to Relations of classic slavery.

The city-state, Greek Policy becomes the main form of the socio-political organization of public life. Society as if all possible forms of the State Device and Board are a monarchy, tyrant, oligarchy, aristocratic and democratic republic.

The intensive development of agriculture leads to the release of people, which contributes to the growth of the crafts. Since it does not solve the "problem of employment", the colonization of near and distant areas began in the Ahasey period, as a result of which territorial Greece grows up to impressive sizes. Economic progress contributes to the expansion of the market and trading, relying on the emerging Monetary circulation system. Beginning coinage Accelerates these processes.

Even more impressive successes and achievements take place in spiritual culture. In its development, the creation was played an exceptional role. Alphabetical letterwho became the greatest achievement of the culture of Archaic Greece. It was developed on the basis of Phoenician writing and differ in amazing simplicity and accessibility, which made it possible to create an extremely effective Education systemThrough which there was no illiterate in ancient Greece, which was also a huge achievement.

During the archaic period, the main Ethical standards and values Ancient society in which the approving feeling of collectivism is combined with an agonistic (competent) beginning, with the approval of the rights of individual and personality, the spirit of freedom. Special place is occupied by patriotism and citizenship. Sewing its policy is perceived as the highest valor of a citizen. During this period, the ideal of man is also born, in which the spirit and body are in harmony.

The embodiment of this ideal contributed to the emergence in 776 BC. Olympic Games. They were held every four years in the city of Olympia and lasted five days, during which the "Holy World" was observed, which stopped all sorts of military actions. The winning games enjoyed great honor and had significant social privileges (exemption from taxes, lifelong pension, permanent places in the theater and on holidays). Three times the winning the game ordered his statue from the famous sculptor and put it in a sacred grove that surrounded the main shrine of the city of Olympia and all Greece - Zeus Temple.

In the Archaic Epoch there are such phenomena of ancient culture as philosophy and spider. Their appeal became her file, from which they are not yet separated strictly from each other and are within the framework of one Naturophilosophy. One of the founders of ancient philosophy and science is also a hem-of-grade Pythagorar, who has a science that takes mathematics It is already a completely independent phenomenon.

High level in the archaic era reaches artistic culture. At this time it consists architecture, resting on two types of warrants - doric and ionic. The leading type of construction protrudes the sacred temple as the abode of God. The most famous and revered becomes the temple of Apollo in Delphi. Arises also Monumental sculpture - First wooden, and then stone. Two types are most common: Nude Men's Statue, known as "Kosar" (Figure of Junior Athlete), and Draped Women, the example of which was the bark (directly standing girl).

This flourishing in this era is experiencing poetry. The above-mentioned epic poems of Homer Iliad and Odyssey have become the greatest monuments of ancient literature. A little later, Homer worked another famous Greek poet - Hesiod. His poems "Theogony", i.e. The pedigree of the gods, and the "women's catalog" complemented and completed the created Homer, after which the ancient mythology acquired a classic, perfect view.

Among other poets of special allocation deserves the work of archite, the founder of lyrical poetry, whose works are filled with personal suffering and experiences related to difficulties and adversity of life. The same allocation deserves Lyric Sappo, the Great Antique Poets from Lesbos Island, who survived the feelings of a loving riser and suffering of a woman.

Creativity of Anacreonta, who challenged beauty, love, joy, fun and enjoyment of life, had a great influence on European and Russian poetry, in particular on A.S. Pushkin.

Classic period and Hellenism

The classical period (V-IV centuries BC) became the time of the highest lift and the heyday of an ancient Greek civilization and culture. It was this period that he gave rise to all that later would be called "Greek miracle."

At this time, it is approved and fully reveals all his amazing opportunities. antique polis In which the main explanation of the "Greek Miracle" is linked. It becomes one of the highest values \u200b\u200bfor Ellin. Democracy also achieves the highest heyday than it must first of all the pericla - an outstanding political figure of antiquity.

In the classic period, Greece is experiencing a stormy economic development, which is even more intensified after the victory over the Persians. The basis of the economy was still agriculture. Along with him, crafts are developing intensively - especially the payment of metals. Commodity production, in particular grapes and olive, is growing rapidly, and as a result, there is a rapid expansion of exchange and trade. Athens becomes a major shopping center not only inside Greece, but also on the whole Mediterranean. Egypt, Carthage, Crete, Syria, Phenicia, are engageless with Athens. A wide scale is under construction.

The highest level reaches . It is during this period that such great minds of antiquity are creating as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Socrates first focused on not on matters of knowledge of nature, but on the problems of human life, the problems of good, evil and justice, the problems of knowledge of the man himself. He also stood at the origins of one of the main directions of all subsequent philosophy - rationalism, the actual creator of which was Plato. In the latter, rationalism fully becomes an abstract-theoretical method of thinking and applies to all spheres of being. Aristotle continued to Line Plato and at the same time became the founder of the second main direction of philosophy - Empirism. According to which the actual source of knowledge is the sensual experience, directly observed data.

Along with philosophy, other sciences are also successfully developed - mathematics, medicine, history.

Unprecedented flourishing in the era of classics is experiencing artistic culture, and first of all - architecture and Urban planning. Significant contribution to the development of urban planning was made by hypoplating - the architect from the Mileta, which developed the concept of a regular planning of the city, according to which the functional parts were distinguished: a public center, a living area, as well as trade, manufacturing and port zones. The main type of monumental building is still a temple.

Athenian Acropolis became a true triumph of ancient Greek architecture, one of the greatest masterpieces of world art. This ensemble included the front door - propylene, the temple of Nicky Aptereros (loanless victory), Erechteyon and the main temple of Athens Parthenon - the temple of Athens Parfenos (Athens Virgin). Acropolis, built by architects Iktin and Kalikhrat, was on a high hill and, as it were, stead over the city, was far from the sea. Special admiration caused Parthenon, which was decorated with 46 columns and rich sculptural and relief decoration. Plutarch, who wrote about his impressions about the Acropolis, noted that it included buildings, "grand largest and inimitable by beauty."

The famous architectural monuments were also two structures related to seven wonders of light. The first was the temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built on the site of an excellent temple - the predecessor, which was the same name and burned by Herostrate, which decided to become famous in such a monstrous way. As the former, the recovered temple had 127 columns, inside was decorated with magnificent statues of the work of Praxitel and the Skopas, as well as beautiful picturesque pictures.

The second monument was the tomb of Mawsol, the ruler of the Karya, which was later the name of the "Mausoleum in Gali-Carnas". The construction had two floors with a height of 20 m, the first of whom was the tomb of Mawsol and his wife of Artemisia. In the second floor, surrounded by colonnay, sacrifices were stored. The roof of the Mausoleum was a pyramid, crowned with a marble quadriga, in the chariot of which was the sculptures of Malsol and Artemisia. Around the tomb was the statues of Lviv and the riders.

In the era of the classics of the highest perfection reaches Greek sculpture. In this genre of art, an indisputable superiority is recognized for Ellowa. An antique sculpture represents a whole pleiad of ingenious masters. The greatest among them is fidi. His statue of Zeus, having a height of 14 m and decorated the temple of Zeus in Olympia, is also among the seven wonders of the world. He created a statue of Athens Parfenos height of 12 m, which was located in the center of the Athenian Acropolis. Each one of his statue is the statue of Athens Proshahos (Athens Warmits) height 9m - portrayed the goddess in the helmet with a spear and embodied the military power of Athens. In addition to these creations. FIDIA also participated in the design of the Athenian Acropolis and in the creation of its plastic decoration.

Among other sculptors, Pythagoras Register, who created the Statue of the "Boy, Education", is the most famous Miron is the author of sculptures "Discobol" and "Athena and Mariji"; The polyclet is the master of the bronze sculpture, which created the Doryifora (spear) and "wounded Amazon", as well as writing the first theoretical work on the proportions of the human body - "Canon".

Late classic represents the Praxitel, Skas, Lisipp. First of them glorified the statue of "Aphrodite Book", which became the first naked female figure in Greek sculpture. The art of Praxtel is inherent in the wealth of feelings, exquisite and thin beauty, hedonism. These qualities manifested themselves in these works such as "Satir, pouring wine", "Eros".

Skasa participated together with Praxitel in the plasticization of the temple of Artemis in Ephesis and Mausoleum in Galicarneas. His creativity is distinguished by passionism and drama, grace of lines, expressiveness of poses and movements. One of his famous creations is the "Vakhanka in Dance" statue. Lisipp created Bust Alexander Macedon, at the courtyard of which he consisted of an artist. From other works, it is possible to indicate the statues of the "Recreation of Hermes", "Hermes, tapping sandal", "Eros". In his art, he expressed the inner world of man, his feelings and experiences.

In the era of the classics of the highest point reaches Greek literature. Poetry represented first of all Pindar. Non-Athenian democracy and expressed in his work nostalgia on aristocracy. He also created religious hymns, AD and songs in honor of the winners of the Olympic and Delphic Games.

The main literary event becomes the birth and flourishing of Greek Tragedy and theater. The father of the tragedy was Eschil, who, like Pindar, did not accept democracy. Its main work is "chained Prometheus" whose hero - Prometheus - became the embodiment of the courage and strength of a person, his vigilance and readiness to sacrifice his life for the sake of freedom and well-being of people.

In the work of Sophokla, glorified by democracy, the Greek tragedy reaches a classic level. Heroes of his works are complex people, they combine the commitment of the ideals of freedom with the wealth of the inner world, the depth of psychological and moral experiences, spiritual subtlety. The most famous tragedy became "Oedip-Tsar".

In the art of Euripid - the Third Great Tragic Eldlant - reflected the crisis of Greek democracy. His attitude towards her was dual. On the one hand, she attracted his values \u200b\u200bof freedom and equality. At the same time, she frightened him that he allowed the unreasonable crowd of citizens in his mood to solve too important questions. In the tragedies, EuroPidaludi is shown not "what they should be", as it took place, in his opinion, in sofokla, and "what they were actually". " His most famous creation became "Medea".

Along with the tragedy, successfully develops comedy, "Father" which is Aristophane. His plays are written by alive, close to spoken language. Their content was relevant and topical topics, among which one of the central was the theme of the world. Comedy Aristophan were available to simple people and enjoyed great popularity.

Hellenism (323-146 BC) became the final stage of an ancient Greek culture. During this period, the high level of Hellenic culture is generally preserved. Only in some areas, for example, in philosophy, it falls somewhat. At the same time, there is an expansion of the Ellinian culture in the territory of many eastern states arising from the collapse of the Empire Alexander Macedon. where it connects with oriental cultures. It is this synthesis of Greek and Eastern cultures and forms that. What is called the culture of Hellenism.

Its education went under the influence of primarily the Greek lifestyle and the Greek education system. It is noteworthy that the distribution process of Greek culture continued after Greece fell dependent on Rome (146 BC). Polically Rome conquered Greece, but the Greek culture conquered Rome.

Of the areas of spiritual culture, science and art are most successfully developing in the era of Hellenism. In science Leading positions still occupy mathematics, Where the great minds are working as Euclidean and Archimedes. Their efforts of mathematics not only progresses in theoretical plan, but also finds a wide applied and practical application in mechanics, optics, statics, hydrostatics, construction. Archhimeda also belongs to the authorship of many technical inventions. Significant advances also have astronomy, medicine, geography.

In art, the greatest success accompanies architecture and sculpture. IN architecture Along with traditional sacral temples, civilian public buildings are widely built - palaces, theaters, libraries, gymnasiums, etc. In particular, the famous library was built in Alexandria, where about 799 thousand scrolls were stored. The Museyon was also built there, which became the largest center of science and art of antiquity. From other architectural structures, Alexandrian lighthouse is height of 120 m high, included in the number of seven wonders of the world. Its author was architect Sostrat.

Sculpture Also continues classical traditions, although new features appear in it: internal tensions, dynamics, drama and tragedy are intensified. Monumental sculpture sometimes takes ambitious dimensions. Such, in particular, was the statue of the god of the Sun of Helios, created by the sculptor of sherry and known as Colossus Rhodes. The statue is also among the seven wonders of the world. She had a height of 36 m, stood on the shore of the harbor of the island of Rhodes, but crashed during an earthquake. Hence the expression "Colossus on clay legs". Famous masterpieces are Aphrodite (Venus) Milos and Nika Samofraki.

In 146 BC Ancient Ellad ceased to exist, but ancient Greek culture exists and is still.

Ancient Greece has a huge impact on the entire world culture. Without it there would be no modern Europe. The eastern world without Hellenic culture would be completely different.

It was the Greeks for the first time to presented to people and began to develop philosophy as a separate science studying universal laws of the movement of nature, thinking of society, the system of attitudes of views on the world and a place occupied by a person in it. For the first time, the ancient Greek philosophers (Plato, Socrates, Aristotle) \u200b\u200bbegan research on the aesthetic and ethical human relations to the world. Exceptionally philosophical approaches to the fulfillment of any scientific task are based on ancient Greek science. For this reason, to allocate specific scientists who were engaged only by scientific problems, it is impossible. Absolutely all scientists of ancient Greece were thinkers and philosophers and possessed strong knowledge of philosophical categories.

Mathematical research

At the upper step of mathematical Olympus, there is a proud figure of Pythagora. This ancient Greek mathematician created a multiplication table, which today's schoolchildren enjoyed, revealed the secret of the rectangular triangle and embodied it in the theorem that begged his name, studied the proportions and properties of integers. It was Pythagoras who argued that the beauty is harmonious, i.e. It can be concluded in the mathematical formula. And the proof of this is the discovery of the relationship of musical to the main tone as 1 to 2, quints 2 to 3, etc. "All the sky is the number" - this is the life of the great.

Medicine

The founder of modern medicine is a hippocrates, a well-known ancient Greek doctor, the author of the treatise on the integrity of the human body. He developed the theory of an individual approach to each patient, introduced the indispensable maintenance of the history of the disease, rejected the foundations of medical ethics. Special attention to Hippocrates paid to the moral appearance of the doctors and invented the famous oath, which is devoted to the profession of all receiving medical diploma. His immortal rule "does not harm the patient" is relevant and today.

History

The author of monumental work on history is Herodotus, who placed the beginning of Greek historiography, and a little later Xenophon continued his business. The very first historical works of Herodotus were devoted to significant political events experienced by the author himself. He tried in his writings to reliably highlight the life of society in aggregate with political and economic situations.

A relatively generally accepted chronological framework of antiquity are the beginning of the IX-VIII centuries. BC e., ending - about 500 g. e. All variety of processes and phenomena, in varying degrees represented by sources and very unevenly studied, which occurred over the age of one and a half thousand years is called antiquity - a special type of culture.

Among the ancient cultural peoples of Ellina appeared so late that most of the technical inventions used in war and in peaceful life was long made and everywhere distributed.

For a long time, the hunting tribes have been invented by a spear and arrows, a long farmer has learned to make a plow and cart, long seating, robby and traded, furredi sea, and Ellians have not yet come to the historic arena. However, going to light with its technical achievements, Hellen with more than fill their long lack. Fales and Garpal, Geron and Anaximander, Filon and Archimedes, but there was no more, excellent scientists, mathematicians, mechanics, technicians. Each of them contributed to the development or creation of a technical novelty. The main technical achievements of antiquity, of course, were focused on war guns, but also for peaceful purposes, a lot of discoveries were made especially in agriculture.

It is impossible to allocate the main technical achievements of antiquity. In addition, many scholars of modern people argue that these achievements cannot be called technical that "antique technique" is childhood, rather infancy of modern technologies. However, with what technologies we would have the case, would not be an antique technique so developed?! Egyptian pyramid technology is still not fully clear, the grand irrigation system in Egypt did not know equal long enough, antique metallurgy gave impetus to the development of metallurgical affairs throughout Europe, the technique of agriculture did not undergo strong changes to this day, especially in technically low-disordered countries. So what do we want? Undoubtedly, primitive "steam car", "Telegraph", the ancient clock look ridiculous now, but the idea of \u200b\u200bthese developments is great and could only come to mind a very technically gifted person. Consider details on some of the inventions of the ancient technicians.

Greek automata

Not many are known that fountains, so favorite in the XVII and XVIII centuries, are obliged to their existence of attention, which one Greek author was given to them. His work in physics and mechanics are almost the only ones, preserved from the ancient scientifically based equipment, right up to Arabs, and then to us. The name of this author is Geron Alexandria. He lived probably in II century. n. e. And it is interesting for us especially because, along with some of its own small inventions, the great treasures of antique physics and techniques have described, which, with the onset of the Renaissance, had a comprehensive and fruitful influence on the modern technique. In school, his name is associated with the so-called heonic ball, in which the throwing of a water jet is achieved with compressed air. This principle was already applied by Ktybia in the fire pump invented.

Its more modern forms are the siphon and a spacing. It was more important for subsequent time Gerona Ball (Eolipale), a prototype of a modern steam car.

Antique schematic drawings, preserved in Heron's manuscripts, can only hardly give the notion of this thing to the uninitiated people.

During Heron, attention was directed more than a funny side of the case than on any practical goal. His presentation of physical problems, in general, reminds TU Manera to physics, which took place in Kunstkamers of noble Lords of the XVII and XVIII centuries. However, the invention published in 1629 by Johenani Brranka, who served as architect's position in Lorettto from 1616, indicates the use of Geronov experience with a steam engine and practical purposes.

Recently, two geron devices have gained extraordinary importance in the field of trade and transport. This is a taximeter and an automatic for selling goods.

Gerona taximeter is called a one meterometer, which means "road meter". In the free translation, his description states the following:

"With the help of a whipometer, we can measure the distance traveled on Earth without tedious use of the measuring circuit and the pole. On the contrary, sitting with the convenience of the crew, we simply measure the wheel left behind the space."

This device is suitable in this way: a box is taken, on the bottom it is set to a small wheel, equipped with 8 cloth and rotating in the plane parallel to the box. The upper end of its axis is inserted into a special crossbar. In the place where the wheel mentioned is located, the hole is cut in the bottom of the box so that the shine-built on the hub of the large wheel of the crew has the ability to engage from the bottom for the teeth of the horizontal wheel. With one turnover of the carriage of the crew, this whine rises to each of the 8 teeth and moves them forward so that first first, then the second, third, etc. The proves passes at the cut.

On the axis of the horizontal wheel, a cylinder with screw cutting (endless screw) is placed. For this cutting, a vertically located gear wheel is engaged, reinforced on the transverse axis. The latter also has a screw cutting, moving second, horizontal gear, whose axis moves the third gear wheel, leading to the following system, etc., if desired. The more gear wheels and endless screws we will arrange, the greater the number of miles we can measure our meter of roads.

In order for the number of revolutions made immediately, the round axes of gear wheels go out and have square shape at the ends. For these ends, the arrows moving in a circle with divisions on which you can read the position of each individual wheel and, thus, to accurately set the distance traveled.

Consequently, the case is happening almost the same as on our power steps.

The modern taximeter also copies the principle of an ancient one meterometer; Only here the rear wheel rotation is not transmitted directly to the machine, and with the help of a pneumatic pipeline or a flexible shaft is transferred to the seat of the chaffin.

In conclusion, from a number of instruments of Geron, I will mention a machine for the sale of sacred water, which was made by the prototype of our chocolate and ticket vehicles.

In ancient times, such an apparatus stood in front of the temple and for lowered copper coins lied sacred water on the hands of pious visitors to the temple. Geron reports that a similar combination of the Kroplitsy and Treasury was invented by the cunning Egyptian priests, and the Alexandria mechanics built this apparatus. It describes its device as follows: Box is taken to collect donations. The top wall is taken, which I have a gap, inside the vessel filled with water, at the bottom of it is the sleeve, which is connected to the outdoor open tube.

Behind the vessel with water in this box there is a vertical stand, the upper end of it is hooked, and the rocker is suspended. On one shoulder of the rocker, there is a small plate, which is in a state of rest is located parallel to the lid or the bottom of the drawer. If the plate is loaded with a small severity or copper coin, it drops, and the other shoulder of the rocker at the point, of course, will rise accordingly. To this shoulder suspend the rod, having the plug in the sleeve below. If the coin is lowered from above, it falls on the plate, presses it down and then slides on the bottom of the box on the plate taken by the inclined position. When the rocker is lowering, its right shoulder rises and together with it. The shutter in the sleeve opens, and Water follows the tube from the vessel outside. Meanwhile, after the coin slipped, the rod tends to take its previous position, the rod closes the output again, and the operation can begin first.

The servant of the temple opens up from time to time a donation collection box, takes out coins (Geron takes a 5-drachm coin for a normal unit, which weighs a little more than one lot (17.80 g)) and fresses fresh consecrated water.

The inventor of this ancient amazing device, probably, did not even dreamed that his idea in a slightly improved form would change all the modern petty trading. It is not known whether the essay of Gerona used the modern inventor of the machine gun.

Since the book of Herona influenced the entire new mechanics directly, and even more indirectly, some connection is quite possible, especially in England, where classical education is more than anywhere revealed by a sign of an educated person and where antique ideas are distributed even more than we, thanks to modern English translations, created joint work of philologists and engineers.

It is unlikely that Gerona's machines include ancient clock, but during the time of Ellin, the hour skills also appreciated as a mechanical vein.

Ancient watch

Extra watchmanship is considered a branch of technology, the most thin and perfect. The oldest techniques found a high degree of ingenuity here. Not without reason, they argued that in this area until the newest time did not appear, not a single idea of \u200b\u200bchange in style and improvements did not go into account. Craft and science are here in a close connection; Moreover, the beginning of scientific thinking, extracting a person from an animal state, is associated with measuring time. The change of day and night is obvious and by itself regulates the activities of people and animals. But in order to be able to delimit the time to large intervals with confidence, a primitive man was to watch the night sky, where a month was clearly placed for him the deadline for him by the first shine of his sickle, the radiance of the full moon and the disappearance of the new moon.

Along with the hemispherical and conical clock of Berrozov type, which can be called vertical clock, horizontal clock were very common in antiquity. With this system, the line, usually inscribed in the quadrangle or in a circle, was evicted on the stone plate approved on the stand, to which they came up as a table. Horizontal lines of this type, naturally, will be for summer and winter solstices with hyperboles whose vertices lie on the meridian, while the equator is a straight line, which is found in the middle. Eleven hour lines go to the east and west, moping, more and more towards south. With this arrangement, the entire pattern gets the shape of a palm tree tail or an ancient double ax, whose handle forms a meridian. Therefore, the Greeks who miseled with their figurative perception of the world to give such cute names even handicraft tools, called this PELEKINON pall swallow system.

Patrole, not known to us closer, "the inventor" of time-secira, as Vitruvius calls him, outlined in his work, like all other inventors, the mathematical theory of this system. But empirically, the device of such a horizontal table for anyone who is watching the shadows from the Sun on Earth (according to the principles of modern education, small astronomers from high school are engaged in this), suggests itself. By setting the day curves on a flat smooth surface, you can already arrange almost suitable sundial.

Vitruvius gives an elementary guide to how to install the most important thing in the whole drawing, meridian. If at least once a month it is hourly noted by the path of the solar shadow and connect the linas points found, it will be revealed that by the time of the equinox we get straight, and by the time of solstice hyperbola, strongly curved to the meridian. Thus, the natural scheme of the line arrangement arose itself, to geometrically calculate and build a business of mathematician specialists. Patrole, therefore, was the first to do for horizontal clock it is a geometric "building".

Ancient artillery.

Among the authors of the ancient artillery, Mechanics Filon and Geron are the most important, but their texts are very difficult for understanding, although equipped with drawings. In the past century, philologists and military specialists united their efforts three times to reconstruct antique guns. Finally, it was possible to make practical models that show how military vehicles were accessed. They made tools, mostly from the tree, the kernels for guns were from sandstone and weighed from 2 to 3 pounds. In general, artillery was invented about 400 BC. e. In Syracuse. Ingenious and energetic monarch, to whom we owe this innovation, was Dionysius senior. Consider more the main milestones of the development of antiquity artillery.

Since the guns used in the antiquity developed from the primitive bows, then consider first the "lucous" guns.

Already Homer in Iliad describes the famous horny bow of Pandara. Arrows from Luke Hercules is the National Greek Hero. Especially powerful onions of Philoktte and Odyssey of the Greek Epos. We know from Odyssey, what a power required to strain tight bows of these heroes. To make it possible for simple mortal tensions and the descent of tight onions, they thought first to the sowing (crossbow). In his simplest design, he is known for children's toys. It is reliably that such a self-timer, as a transition to more complex weapons, was already in Roman time and probably even earlier in Greece. However, military writers say nothing to this primitive weapon. Even the ancient self-loss is known to us only in two embossed images found in the surrounding area of \u200b\u200bLe Puy in France and stored in the Tamble Museum. In the figure, we see that in the simplest design it corresponds to, in general, modern children's toys. You see the wounded groove in the middle, which put an arrow. The string, strengthened to the ends of the tight wooden or metal bow, is stretched over the groove with a small block with teeth and then, when the descent is assigned, rushes forward. Since the drawing takes place under the lies of the crossbow, then the latter, probably, was the side of the longitudinal roset, like our children's self-timing. With such a device of the string, when tightening it to the delaying mechanism, passes between the upper and lower parts of the bed; After the arrow is embedded, the Awnhouse rushes forward along the slot with greater correctness.

But the Greek war writers, however, do not inform us about this simple arms; Probably because it is usually armed with hunters, and not warriors that we see on French relief images. These writers stop on larger weapons, which is called the gastrace. This "weapon, stretching with the help of the abdomen" like an arbelt, was equipped with a bow, a guide and a groove for shooting. But the pulling of this powerful onion could not be made simply by hand: a special mechanism should be applied for this purpose. Antiquity of heon ingenuity

The Greeks arranged a groove for shooting in such a way that he formed a groove, which was in section the shape of a swallow tail. With this groove, a plank or rack is connected, equipped with a longitudinal spike also in the form of a swallow tail. The top plank can slide at the bottom and forth. Here we, therefore, have something like a slider. When they want to charge such a gastrace, put forward a movable bar. At its back end, an iron hook is arranged, which captures the crown theater in the middle.

If the crossbow rubbed into the ground with a protruding end of the slider, then the other end of the bed will have to be against the abdominal arrow. When pressing the belly and all the severity of the body to this end, the slider goes up again, and the string is strained. In this position, it is firmly held with two delays. The weapon in the cocked position is put on the support and on top of the groove, an arrow placed ahead of the iron hooker; Then aim and make a shot. For this, the hook, holding the tutor, is exempt by pulling out a special gate, the so-called descent. The immediate action with a buzz is breaking off the hook and sends an arrow forward. From this device of the gastrafet, improved and enhanced in a further zopir from the target (probably at the beginning of the IV century. BC) developed actually artillery or catapult. They wear different names like Avtiton (tools for throwing arrows or catapult in his own sense of the word) or Palinton (instrument for throwing stone nuclei, specially called balloons).

However, not only bows and arrows were interested in military antiquities. More advanced murder guns were invented and embodied in Filon's life, which as an inventor was unrivaled at the time.

It invented the tensioning mechanism in which the additional voltage of any value was created using wedges scored on the right and on the left to the tensioning block. Further, he invented the so-called Halcoton, in which the elasticity of forged bronze springs was used to pull the onions. These witty devices were also copied by the scram. But in antiquity they apparently did not have success. The elasticity of bronze is achieved with difficulty and provides a smaller duration of the action than the usually used animal conductors. However, in modern mortars, the elasticity of the steel springs system is applied in a similar way. Filon has a very interesting description of the invention, which connects the principle of operation of modern automatic rifles and machine guns with ancient guns based on the use of elasticity when taking. This polyball, invented by Dionysia from Alexandria, E. Scram also reconstructed. Despite the seeming complexity of the invention, this device even was recharged in the reconstructed form itself.

Managing to action is produced, as usual, tensioning the theetting until it is captured by the hook. The gate, which is tensioning, is connected by an infinite chain with the descent and causes the automatic release of the croup with further turning. At the same time, it acts so that every time a new arrow is embedded after the shot.

Over the groove for arrows (martial chute) funnel is placed with some arrows. An next arrow falls out of this funnel, just the rolling bottom of the roller in the longitudinal groove.

When the roller roller is rotated, the arrow turns along with it and is located above the combat gutter of the gun. Here the arrow falls down in the chute, and the empty roller continues to rotate; While as a result of the rotation of the gate, the next arrow is produced, the roller from the top of the funnel again captures a new one. Thus, this polyball served by one person actually acts as a machine gun.

After instead of the crossbows and ridicule lever and tweak tools, the guns are charged, all other structures began to disappear. Could not withstand the victorious onset of powder guns also "Steam gun" invented alleged archimensional. It is possible that Petrairk had no vague information about her, not knowing her device, and Leonardo da Vinci described this gun more accurately.

This "club", as shown in the upper figure, consists of a cannon trunk inserted on a third of its length in the roaster. There he is communicated to a hot state, as it shows the second sketch. Over the right end of the trunk is a boiler with water. When screwing down the screw water flows into a hot part of the cannon, and it is instantly turns into pairs, which with force throws the kernel to come in front. In conclusion, it says that the gun throws at a distance of six stages of the core weighing 1 talent.

Not all technical achievements and new items managed to consider in this work. Many of those achieved by ancient victories are not available to the modern researcher for the following reasons: firstly, too far from us in a temporary understanding of ancient Greece, ancient Rome, secondly, most of the innovations of antiquity will remain the secret due to the insufficiently developed descriptive system, in - Third, many of the technical innovations that have come down to us are simply not implemented and not understood by our contemporaries.

We tried to describe and present graphically the main milestones of the technical thought of antiquity. First of all, it is of course military equipment, since the ancient world is unthinkable without war. As you can see, Filone and Geron's thought in relation to weapons of war is far from primitive. Created by them polyball, ballast and other guns served to create modern machine guns and guns.

However, in a peaceful life, technical thought did not stand in place. Household trivia and economic aggregates were created and improved constantly. When creating this work, first of all, we used the descriptive method, since such a problem as an antique technique can best be lit from the point of view of the description and the system-comparative method. Comparing modern and antique techniques, you can try to trace how far modern technologies from the Ellin technique and at the same time are close as they are at their own implementation. Throughout the work, a method for analyzing data is used as a method of studying and describing the component parts of the study object to represent the object as a whole. Analyzing and studying antique technical improvements, one can make a general opinion about the ancient technique as a whole, as a highly developed direction of antique science. Thus, not only philosophy and the universe occupied the minds of scientists of antiquity, as well as real mechanical and technical problems, the creation and development of all new and new aggregates, the spread of new technical systems everywhere. Therefore, incorrectly and unscientific question the technicality of the ancient world.

Wise men and inventors of ancient Greece were in many ways averaged their time, reaching unprecedented heights in a number of areas of life from astronomy to medicine and from mathematics to geography. The authors of scientific discoveries and inventions were often deified, since the analogues of the projects implemented by them were not to be found in the entire well-known world, and ordinary ordinary people refused to believe that this could be created by hand of a simple mortal.

Despite the fact that the tens of centuries have passed since then, and humanity itself is just a step from space expansion to Mars, many of the achievements of the ancient Greeks also find their use in our daily life.

Water mills

Photos from the site - www.kalavrytanews.com

Not so long ago, water mills were used everywhere for a blacksmithing case, various needs of agriculture and, of course, grinding grain crops. To date, this construction has undergone many changes, becoming high-tech in a sense. However, even at the same time, the classic water mill still serves as faithfully in many not so developed corners of our planet.

If you believe the work of Philon of Byzantine called "Pneumatica", then the creator of the first sample millusing water energy is considered to be Greek scientist 3 Millennium BC. PERAGOR.In particular, he guessed how to direct the energy of the water into the vein-desired rule, invented the wheel with a toothed transmission. This theory subsequently confirmed the study of the British historian Michael Levis, who proved that Greece is Motherland.

Odometer

Odometer. Photos from the site -www.archaiologia.gr.

The name of this device is familiar to each car owner, since the attitent mileage of the odometer is set today to all cars without exception. In our age of advanced technologies, odometers are digital, but literally a couple of dozen years ago, humanity used traditional mechanical variations of this device, and they only differed slightly on the principle of action from those that were used by the ancient Millennium Greeks.

That the odometer was invented by the Greeks, indicates primarily its name, consisting of two Greek words: ODEO \u003d road and metrony \u003d measure. Creating an instrument is attributed to various inventors of ancient Greece, including Archimedes. Despite the disagreements in the scientific environment, the majority leans to the opinion that the author of the first odometer is mathematician and mechanic 1st century AD Geron Alexandria.

Alarm clock

Who among us is not familiar with this malicious enemy of sweet morning sleep and at the same time an indispensable assistant in everyday life?! And did any of you think about any of you, to whom we are obliged to this invention? Since we raised this question in this article, the answer is obvious - ancient Greeks. Although, if more precisely, the inhabitants of the antiquity belong only to the idea of \u200b\u200balarm, since an externally, the device we use today, and its old analogue is completely different from each other.

In antiquity, the Greeks used two types of such a mechanism. One of them represented the water clock, of which at a given point in time began to flow water drops. The drops fell into the container of a special form that enhances the sound.

A drum was attached to another device that works as a similar principle, which, at a certain moment, pebbles began to be raised. Noise from the fall of pebbles was still that! Both types of alarm clock were very popular in ancient Greece about 5-4 centuries BC. It is said that even the famous philosopher Plato resorted to the help of his water variety, which, however, used the mechanism as a call, notifying students about the lactice. By the way, by 3 century BC The Greeks came up with a more perfect and complex view of alarm clock with a dial and arrow for measuring time, as well as gongs and models for signaling.

Cartography

Map Ptolemy. Photos from the site -history-of-macedonia.com.

The science of creating cards was born not in Greece, but in Babylon, however, it was the Greeks that improved her so much that she allowed to make travels to huge distances. But the first world map was created in Greece, its author became the philosopher Anaximander (lived in 610-546. BC. Er). On it, of course, only those corners of our planet were indicated, which were known to the ancient Greeks, but even at the same time the Anaximandra map is considered one of the greatest achievements of his time, and the scientist itself is called the pioneer of the map of the cartography.

Olympic Games

More than 2.700 years ago in ancient Greece, in our time, the Olympic Games are considered one of the most exciting sports competitions of the planet. An even more important role was indulging in antiquity, when they were not from all over the world for the lack of radio and television, albeit from all over the world, but from all over Greece it was possible only every 4 years.

At the same time, Greece presented us not just a sports and entertainment event, but an idea of \u200b\u200bcultural metabolism and, as a result, a means to achieve agreement and mutual understanding between nations. We should not forget that in the ancient times of Ellada was not a single country, and its independent policies were actually a miniature model of today's world with his many states.

The role of ancient Greek civilization in the history of mankind is great, complex and multifaceted. It was not only a powerful civilization breakthrough. Ancient Greece performed a kind of historical workshop, where many billets were created, which have been further processed and improved within the following civilizations. Democracy and private ownership, human freedom t Civic debt, materialism and idealism All these most important components of modern civilizational development were born in ancient Greece. It is not by chance that in the history of Europe, the concept of revival is associated with antiquity, with ancient Greek civilization. The people of subsequent centuries were looking for a point of support in it for the further development of a human spiritual world, science and culture, for the most important achievement of ancient Greek civilization is a flourishing of a human personality. It was the Greek philosophor of the prostagor belong to the words: a man of measure of all things.

The paradox of the story is that, relying on slavery, ancient Greek civilization for the first time gave a sample of a free person and free organization of human community. Cities-states existed to ancient Greece. But it was the Greeks that, as if by taking a step back from the power of the kings, the democratic community-polisas managed to create a community device, they gave those samples of democratic self-determination of people who later served as a study for those who thought about a more equitable device of society.

It was the first in the history of the free community of the Greeks that we are obliged to the emergence of scientific thinking as a type of world view. The Greeks created the foundations of philosophical science in its dialectic unity of an idealistic and materialistic look at the world. They, realizing the significance of the past for the present and the future, created a science story. Ethics and geography, psychology and trigonometry, physics and anatomy These and many other sciences are obliged to the ancient Greeks not only by their birth, but also their names. The ancient Greece of the birthplace of many conceptual ideas that have become a scientific truth today: the atomic structure of matter, the rotation of the Earth around its axis, the planets around the Sun, etc. But in our current world, many of their specific inventions entered. It's hard to believe, but the first alarm clock was invented by Plato, and the modern taxi counter has its prototype mechanism created by Alexandrian mechanic Heron.

The contribution of ancient Greece to world culture and art is unique. Today in our stores next to the books of Tolstoy, Nabokov, Hemingway can be seen by the Homer or Poems of Sappo. And we perceive them as a natural part of our modern culture. Ancient Greece gave the world the theater, the genres of tragedy and comedy. Their best samples still do not go from the stage, and many generations open in the tragedies of Eschil and Sophocla, the comedies of Aristophan their innermost and purely modern meaning. The architecture, sculpture and painting of ancient Greece have long come to the treasury of world culture, in a number of its highest samples, to which the temple of Athens-Virgin Parfenon, and Diskol Mirone, and Aphrodite Kinda Praxitel, and Samofraki's Nika - a symbol of a joyful victory. Speaking of ancient Greek art, we often use the word for the first time. In the first half V BC. Polygona painter first overcame the archaic flatness and stiffness of images. His multifigure compositions created the illusion of the depth of space. Miron first in sculpture managed to pass the moment of the body transition from one movement to another. The first painter in the current sense of the word applied lightness (the basis for which the painting of the new time was developed) was Apollodor Athens. But, probably, the most important thing is that it gave us an ancient Greek civilization is the ideal of the harmonious beauty of a person who, with all the diversity of culture of the next millennia, remained unsurpassed. Without hiding from the tragic inside of being themselves, the Greeks had an amazing ability to rejoice in life, see and sing her beauty.

Section V. Chapter 2. Ancient Roman civilization

1. Ancient Roman civilization Marine civilization

In the center of the Mediterranean Sea on the Apenninsky Peninsula there was another maritime civilization ancient Roman. Its creation contributed to the favorable geographical and climatic conditions. From the north of the Apennine Peninsula is protected by the Alps, from the east of the Adriatic Sea. From the south-east of the peninsula is separated from the Balkan by the Ionian Sea, in the west of Sardinia and Corsica by the Tyrrhenian Sea. In the north-west of the peninsula was washed by the waters of the Ligurian Sea. The coastline of the Apennine Peninsula is developed significantly less than in Greece, there are no seas sitting in the islands, so the navigation did not receive such a development as in Greece. Along the entire peninsula stretched apnean mountains, separating it into three large areas of the Northern, Central and South. Large rivers, except for the Pad River (Sov. PO), there is little on the peninsula. A lot of small rivers, full and turbulent in winter and especially during the spring floods, were almost switted in the summer, which made them unsuitable for shipping.

The climatic conditions of the Apennine Peninsula were distinguished by a variety. So, the north was in the zone of moderate climate, with cold rains, snow and night frosts, and the central and southern parts of the peninsula warmed subtropics with soft and warm weather, abundant rains, which contributed to the appearance of a rich plant and animal world. The mountain slopes of the Apennine were covered with dense forests, where pines grew, fir, spruce, oaks, emines, beech, chestnuts, in the valleys and on the coast, kiparis, laurels, peace, acacia, palm trees. From the beginning of the first thousand BC. Under the influence of the Greeks, olive groves, apricot and peach gardens appeared on the peninsula. In the mountains and forests there were boars, wolves, foxes, bears as well as various small animals and birds. Residents of the peninsula already in ancient times tamed bulls, sheep, pigs. The ancient Greeks, surprised by rich in vegetation and abundance of livestock, called the southern part of the Peninsula of the country of ITALY. This name in the future spread to the entire Apennine Peninsula.

Italy is relatively poor minerals. There were small deposits of gold, silver, iron, copper, tin. Central Apennins were rich in marble and building stone, Campaign was famous for clay, and the mouth of the Tiber gave the inhabitants of Italy Sol.

On the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, which became the heart of the ancient Roman civilization, the population lived (both the local and progress), strongly distinguished in languages, ethnic and cultural terms. The ancient population of the Peninsula was the Mediterranean peoples: Ligures in Italy, Sikan on Sicily Island, Corsica island, sardia on Sardinia Island. At the end of the early II of the first thousand BC. In the area of \u200b\u200bthe Mediterranean basin, mass movement of tribes occurred. From Illyria, the Basin of the Danube and Western regions of Malaya Asia on the Peninsula, various tribes moved by the waves, among which the numerous are the Indo-Europeans of Italiki. The most ancient population of the peninsula was partially pushed into alpine mountain valleys, partially exterminated or assimilated by the aliens. In I thousand BC. The main mass of the inhabitants of the peninsula was the tribes of Italiks, of which laminated lathes, which gave the name of the region of Latia, Oski, Umbra and Sabeys, among which are the most numerous sams. Around the Latia lived a lot of small tribes, including Sabinians. As a result of the mixing of the Latin and Sabinsky tribes, Romans appeared. Areas to the north-west of the Tiber River, in the mouth of which the city of Rome was founded, inhabited Etrusca. The Romans called them tsque, the Greeks of Tirren, and they themselves called themselves. The Etruscan Peninsula came from the east, probably from the western regions of Malaya Asia. They had written, the alphabet of which was composed on the basis of Phoenician. The preserved inscriptions (9 thousand) are not allowed to understand the language of the Etruscans. Etruscans were considered excellent metallurgists, builders, experienced Morelods. Dominant to the sea, they were engaged in sea wake. In the III century. BC. The Romans conquered the Etruscans and subsequently nominated them. Etruscans have been borrowed by many of their achievements in construction business, artistic culture and ideology. The Romans never denied that in writing, culture, many religious rites and institutions they are obliged to Etruscs. Etruscas sent to learn young people from noble families. Greek myths penetrated through Etruria in Rome. In the course of a long ethnocultural mixing to I in. BC. On the Apenninsky Peninsula there was a single Italian nationality with a single Latin language.

Part of the population of the Apennine Peninsula was the Greek colonies. Already in VIII-VI BC. Greeks inhabited the shores of South and Medium Italy, as well as the island of Sicily. Based on the Greek colonies, large shopping centers were created. Greek colonists moved the culture of olivedom and viticulture to the peninsula, the technique of ceramic and metallurgical production. Greek craft, agricultural technique, military affairs, scientific knowledge, art and religious ideas have provided a strong impact on the formation of ancient Roman civilization. The population of the Apennine Peninsula was influenced by Carthaginian, whose colonies were in the west of Sicily and in Sardinia.

So, the ancient Roman civilization was formed under the influence of several factors:

the presence of a commonly owned cultural fund, in particular, tribal legends, traditions in ceramics and jewelry art;

the presence of Greek influence, including through the colonists;

allocation of the significant role of Etruscan influence.

Favorable natural conditions and the influence of more developed civilizations contributed to the rapid formation and development of ancient Roman civilization.

Ancient Roman civilization covers the period from the VIII century. BC. (April 21, 753 BC. The legendary date of the foundation of Rome) according to V c. AD (August 23, 476. The last emperor of the Western Roman Empire Romul Augustus was lowled). In its development, civilization passes through three stages: the epoch of the kings (viii - vi. BC), the republic (VI - I centuries BC), empire (I century. BC . AD). The Epoch of the Empire, in turn, is divided into early, and the Epoch of the Principate): 31 BC. 284 N.E., and the lateimical period (the era of Dominat): 284 476

Corsky Rome civilization

The oldest period of the history of Rome got the name of the Tsarsky (the VIII-VI centuries. BC) Residents of Latia Center for the emergence of the ancient Roman civilization lived by childbirth, each of which occupied its territory (PAG), i.e. Represented a territorial community. From the combination of such communities and there was Rome. He appeared at the junction of the areas of 3 separate tribal associations. Tribes (tribes) consisted of binding associations (Kuriy). Each tribe was 10 hours, in each curia there are 10 birth. So, in each tribe there were 100 clans, and the population of the entire community consisted of 300 genera. All included in labor associations were considered members of the community. These were patricians (descendants of fathers), and initially only they were viewed as full citizens. Every family had his name that was worn by any, part of the family association.

The social organization of the Archaic Rome still retained the features of a tribal relationship. At the head of the state stood a life-eating king. He presided over the Senate, performed the functions of the priest, a military man (headed the Military of Citizens Legion), legislator, judges. The highest authority was the Senate Council of Elders, where there were 300 senators, one by each of each kind. Folk Assembly (christmate comicies), in which representatives of the Kurii participated, approved the decisions of the Senate, solved the issues of war and peace with neighboring peoples. The main socio-economic community cell was family (surname). She was a community in miniature: the head of the family, children, grandchildren, slaves. The family had a household plot and could get his plot on a public field of spare arable land. The agriculture was then the main occupation of the Romans, although military campaigns against neighbors in the struggle for Earth and mining played a great importance in their life. Hiking usually started in March and ended in September.

Full members of the Roman community were considered, as mentioned, only patricians, i.e. Those who belonged to a noble race. But there was another social layer of plebeian. Most likely, these were immigrants and residents of conquered regions. They were personally free, but did not have any rights, could not own urban land, did not receive a plot from the public field. Plebei was engaged in craft, trading, came under the patronage of patricians, from which they could get land. These dependent people (customers) obeyed Patricia, accompanied him into military and peacetime, publicly showed him signs of respect. The lower layer of the population of Rome was slaves. They were replenished from among the prisoners of war, bought near the neighboring tribes or passage workers. An important source of replenishment of the number of slaves was a boat slavery. According to the ancient judicial customs, a person who brought in debt was obliged to return him with interest. Otherwise, he was led to the court, and he had to either return the debt, or compensate for him to sell himself in slavery, wife or himself. Debt law was particularly intensified when Rome fell under the power of Etruscan conquerors. In the VII century The rulers of the Etruscan city of Tarquinia submitted to Rome.

Etruscan kings ruled up to 510 BC The brightest figure among them is servicing Tully (rules in 578-534. BC), the penultimate Roman king. It is considered the great reformer of the oldest period of Roman civilization, in many respects determined its further republican history. He divided Rome into territorial districts, which also received the name of the tribes, but were already administrative units instead of the three old tribes. 4 urban and 17 rural tribes were created in the territorial, not a bloodworgled sign. The entire population was rewritten and divided into two parts: military-ridicated and liberated from military duties. The basis of the division was the physical suitability of military service and the property situation. All the male population was divided into 5 property discharges. Each time exhibited a certain number of military units of hundreds (centuries) each centurium was not only a military, but also a voting unit when elections to the authorities. In total, 193 centuries were created, of which 98 of the first discharge (18 hundred equestrian warriors and 80 hiking), i.e. consisting of the most wealthy members of the community. Thus, the majority at the people's assembly received the richest. In fact, it was a dictatorship of Patriches, but at the same time, the reforms of serving Tully inflicted a serious blow to a birth nobility, strengthened the territorial community, gave the opportunity to nominate a man with a rich, but who had a wealth of their own forces. As a result of the senators of Senators, Sermen Tully was killed. His politics continued his son-in-law Tarquinities proud. However, he was soon expelled. The Senate abolished the royal power. The time of the Roman Republic began.